Finally, the trunk is disarticulated and consumed.19,21 Coyotes, wolves, and domestic dogs are known to disarticulate body parts and scatter them over a wide area.21,25. In some cases, puncture wounds can be excised.8, A forensic approach to a suspected fatal dog attack should include not only the detailed exploration of the victim and the dog but also the appropriate assessment of the scene. Man has been transformed into prey, and the animal into hunter, and several factors have been described as contributors of this atavistic relationship. small puncture in the victim's cartilage. An appropriate forensic approach must include detailed assessment of the scene, the victim, and the animals involved. Carnivora has been divided into two superfamilies, Caniformia (dog-like carnivores) and Feliformia (cat-like carnivores). Pomara C, DErrico S, Jarussi V, Turillazzi E, Fineschi V. Cave canem: bite mark analysis in a fatal dog pack attack. Puncture wounds are not the same as cuts. The floors were covered with dog feces, and there was no available dog food. Because of the impossibility of removing the nail and because the man was buried rather than exposed, we have direct evidence of the practice of crucifixion. J Forensic Sci. Antemortem trauma from rodent activity the popiel phenomenon. How did the scientists determine that there was a second victim? The bioarchaeology of crucifixion is therefore a bit of a conundrum: it makes sense that finding evidence may be difficult because of the ravages of time on bones and wooden crosses, but the sheer volume of people killed in this way over centuries should have given us more direct evidence of the practice. Several drag marks and an oblong perforation are also present on the left side of the frontal squama, as well as scraping drag marks close to bregma. Number 3099067. scratch marks on the victim's arm. Small dogs and larger dogs can be discriminated according to the intercanine distance.8 In cases of only bone remains with deep bites, the most accurate point to measure is the mesial bone height.32 The inclusion of a metric reference in the photographs will allow metric evaluations and calibrations by using an appropriate software.3,8 Bernitz et al suggest to avoid the problem posed by the length of the canines in the match of the dogs teeth with the cast of the bite mark, by lengthening and shortening their indentations in both duplicate models of the bite to correspond them when analysis is performed. They can lead to serious nerve damage that affects many parts of your day-to-day life. Possible complications from a cut or puncture wound include: Prevent cuts and puncture wounds by taking the following steps to ensure your physical safety: Last medically reviewed on October 31, 2019, An open wound is an injury involving an external or internal break in your body tissue, usually involving the skin. Unless more bone material is found in the future, this is the sole known evidence of crucifixion from an archaeological excavation. Top, Copyright 2023 Dove Press Ltd A blunt trauma injury can cause your spleen to rupture. (c) the matrix of bone tissue. Death was attributed to exsanguination due to the neck blood vessels laceration subsequent to the dog bite. Created for people with ongoing healthcare needs but benefits everyone. There was usually an inscription nailed above the victim, noting his particular crime, and sometimes victims got a wooden support to sit or stand on. Fatal dog bite in the absence of significant trauma: Capnocytophaga canimorsus infection and unexpected death. 2007;28(2):177181. The participation of all forensic investigators in all procedures could strengthen the trace recovery rates thus avoiding mistaken opinions.13,17,20, It is not a minor problem to discriminate bite marks from other traumas.19 Souviron1 refers to an interesting case in which the wounds of a 7-year-old girl who was found dead and mutilated were misdiagnosed as stab wounds created by knives and/or scissors. Stiegler D, Gilbert JD, Warner MS, Byard RW. Injury. Formulated with 10% benzocaine, a topical anesthetic used to help relieve pain and itch associated with bug bites and stings. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. What caused the puncture marks on the victim's bones? Bitemarks can provide useful evidence in cases of assault (particularly in cases of Non Accidental . hospital where it was found by the police? Answer the following truefalse question. Wear shoes and make sure the soles are sturdy and cannot be punctured by a nail. Bulk reprints for the pharmaceutical industry. He stood roughly 167cm tall, the average for men of this period. J Anim Ecol. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Gunn A. A/an _________ is longer than it is deep while a/an _________ is deeper than it is long. If you see debris embedded in the cut, dont attempt to remove it. Surfaces that are no longer continuous and no longer meet or meet at an unnatural angle. The cause of death was attributed to internal hemorrhage as a consequence of multiple fractures and external hemorrhage. Bitemark Evidence: A Color Atlas and Text. A pitch fork caused the marks in the victim 's bones . When bite marks are found, the skills of a forensic odontologist are advised. [6] Take over-the-counter pain relievers (acetaminophen) or anti-inflammatories (ibuprofen) as needed. (Public domain image by S. Rubn Betanzo via wikimedia commons. 2011;32(1):5054. Rothschild MA, Schneider V. On the temporal onset of postmortem animal scavenging. Volume 2015:5 Why was the presence of a rare insect significant in the case? Animal attack injuries: fatal and non fatal. Spanish. How did the scientists determine that there was a second victim? Testimonials It is these wounds that carry a high risk of infection, and joint involvement, and must be thoroughly examined and irrigated prior to any definitive treatment. Serious and infected wounds may require first aid . Left: A reconstruction of what the foot may have looked like around the time of death. In: Payne-James J, Byard R, Corey T, Henderson C, editors. In fact, when a dog pack is involved, each member of the gang tears at the prey, fight over the parts, and eats the meat in a substantial quantity as quickly as possible.16 It is not uncommon for victims of dog attacks to be found naked, which may falsely suggest a rape rather than a dog mauling.2,17, Attacking incidents occur most frequently around the victims home. True. This is especially true if a bite or a rusty object caused the wound. Because of the nature of their purposefor . crescent-shaped indentations on the victim's face. Why did the murderer move the body to the V.A. A lot of rather random chance is involved in the creation of the archaeological record from weather conditions to cultural customs to rodent activity. What caused the puncture marks on the victim's bones? ONE -Stabbing the back of the neck at the base of the skull. The December 22nd Board of Trustees meeting has been canceled due to a Winter Storm Watch declared by the National Weather Service across northern Illinois. His name, according to the inscription on the ossuary, was Yehohanan ben Hagkol. ), Drawing of the calcaneus of Yehohanon along with a, reconstruction of the fleshed and defleshed foot skeleton. The dogs stretched and ripped the suspended victim, tightening the rope and producing a tourniquet effect. Pelvic fractures are typically the result of high impact injuries. Forensic Sci Int. This work is licensed under aCreative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Since it was done to thousands of people and involved nails,youd probably assume we have skeletal evidence of crucifixion. Keywords: fatal dog attack, scavenging, bite mark, dog behavior, forensic pathology, forensic dentistry. As a result, the dogs incisors can be matched to the indentations on the plaster cast, representing a dynamic pattern of biting.8, Santoro et al16 reported a case of a 45-year-old man found dead on the ground of an abandoned military base with signs that he had been dragged. Price : $15.99 ($2.66 / Ounce) Features : Helps relieve itching and pain from chiggers (redbugs), ticks, mosquitos, no-see-ums, biting flies, gnats, sand fleas and other bug bites. Why was the irregular shape to the sternum of the two victims significant in the case? Beck J, Ostericher I, Sollish G, De Leon J. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. Dove Medical Press is part of Taylor & Francis Group, the Academic Publishing Division of Informa PLC They are small and run quickly mimicking small prey, and they are usually unable to escape from a mauling dog. Int J Legal Med. When nails were involved, they were long and square (about 15cm long and 1cm thick) and were driveninto the victims wrists or forearms to fix him to the crossbar. Learn how we can help. Why was the irregular shape to the sternum of the two victims significant in the case? Ignoring Booth's ridicule of his young age and . Generally, bones break as a result of force and/or trauma like a car crash. 7. Dorion RBJ. (b) yellow marrow. How did the scientists determine that there was a second victim? A perfect code is perfect because no bit errors will occur during transmission. The force of impact is concentrated at the tip of the implement, and the sharper the tip, the easier . Souviron RR. Royal Decree 287/2002, of 22 March, by which develops the Law 50/1999, of December 23, on the legal regime of possession of potentially dangerous wild animals. Byard RW, Tsokos M. Forensic issues in cases of diogenes syndrome. Many people accidentally get puncture wounds with household or work items, yard tools, or when operating machinery. In contrast to the outdoor context, the indoor interference is usually caused only by carnivores and rodents. Domestic dogs are recognized but unappreciated scavengers;38 when an individual dies from natural (or not animal dependent) causes, he or she becomes part of the ecological cycle and the animal may simply view the body as a source of nutrition leading to postmortem depredation with obvious but grotesque changes and mutilations.20 This apparently simple assertion may not be sufficiently interpreted by the authorities, and the dog is unjustifiably destroyed (Figure 2). Like death by guillotine in early modern times, crucifixion was a public act, but unlike the swift action of the guillotine, crucifixion involved a long and painful literally, excruciating death. What caused the puncture marks on the victim's bones? The skin may be tender, feel flushed, or have fang marks in the affected area. 2011;206(13):e37e42. Thus, when a hyoid bone breaks, it's often a result of strangulation, either from an accident, homicide, or suicide. The U.K. subsidiary has a current short term loan of 1,000,000 that expires 90 days from now, but will have to borrow the same, A. Animals, autopsies and artefacts. Bullets move in a straight line through the body, except when they hit a bone. Neck wounds are usually slanted perpendicularly to the neck and positioned in an anteroposterior direction. Tokdemir MB, etin G, Sam B, zer E, Yildirim A, Butun C. The challenges in autopsy cases exposed to animal attack. This site is owned and operated by Informa PLC ( Informa) whose registered office is 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG. 2nd ed. Borchelt PL, Lockwood R, Beck AM, Voith VL. Attacks by packs of dogs involving predation on human beings. In order to provide our website visitors and registered users with a service tailored to their individual preferences we use cookies to analyse visitor traffic and personalise content. The most important step in caring for a cut is preventing blood loss. In contrast, a cut is an open wound that produces a long tear in the skin. The authors had ethical permission to use all photographs included in this paper. Spider bites leave small puncture marks on the skin, which can be painful and cause redness and swelling. (2015, January), First aid: Cuts, scrapes, and stitches. Contact Us 6. Stabs and the ants left marks on the body as well 6. 6. False. The most common causes of cuts and puncture wounds are external injuries that break or tear the skin. If there are not enough thyroid hormones available in the body, the anterior pituitary can release thyroid-stimulating. Premolars and molar markings are also common since the dogs jaw can open widely.4,9, Even though in considering that there are logical distortions of the soft tissues, the more stable patterns of the bite mark should be measured as a quality control of the procedure. Pets can bite their owners with the intention of waking them up and can cause injuries at the moment of death.1,19,28,29 Bite wounds inflicted after death like all such wounds do not usually bleed to any great extent. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. Change the bandage daily and whenever it becomes wet or dirty. Although the German Shepherd has been associated frequently with fatal attacks,15,44 this breed is not considered as dangerous by some legislation,45 and it is used by both the army and the police or as a guard dog.44 This is not a minor point; police dogs are trained to bite with strength, using the entire mouth (including their whole set of teeth), resulting in more serious wounds. Checking out cuts, scratches, and abrasions. At the scene, a pack of mixed-breed dogs of various sizes was identified later. The public prosecutors office ordered the euthanasia of both animals to prevent the recurrence of this feeding behavior. Figure 1 Outdoors scavenging by dogs of a dead-by-hanging male suicide.Notes: The age of the unidentified victim was estimated to be in the 5565-year range. Byard RW, James RA, Gilbert JD. Its difficult to identify these bodies, and scavenging animals would have done further damage to the bones. Dont use heavy machinery or tools without wearing proper safety equipment and shoes. violence or natural causes, Discontinuity travels completely through bone, Discontinuity does not go completely through bone. Burnadean Jones. Part of fractured area that is still attached to original bone and meets at an unnatural angle, Bone is broken in 2 segments. (d) the ground substance. 2002;116(5):295300. Rule No 65, published on January 31th of 2015. Sharp force trauma (SFT) is produced by a tool that is edged, pointed or beveled [ 1 ]. Approved amendment for the regulation of the Hunting Law, adopted by Rule No 5, 1998. Our website services, content, and products are for informational purposes only. The mother was charged with second-degree murder 11 days later and her other children were taken into custody (she was single). If the dogs are alive, anesthesia should be used for this procedure.8 Bernitz et al8 explained that claw marks should be discriminated against in the bite marks. 9. Arterial puncture is an invasive procedure with the potential for significant complications and must be performed with priority given to the safety of the patient. Arms and legs are also the common wound site from a dog bite in adults. A scientific inclusion/exclusion of the dog involved is possible and also recommended because of the possible serious criminal, legal, and/or financial consequences for the owner of the animal. Carnivore bitemarks. Once the crossbar was in place, the feet may be nailed to either side of the upright or crossed. These may enable not only the identification of the species responsible but also the individual animal. How did the scientists determine that there was a second victim? Fatalities from venomous and nonvenomous animals in the United States (19992007). Consequently, the surrounding bloodstains would be distinct from the spatter emanating from a living person.28 A common situation of dog scavenging in indoor interferences is presented in Diogenes syndrome. Instead, seek emergency medical attention immediately. Definition / general. A puncture wound is caused by an object piercing the skin, creating a small hole. 1. The majority of bite marks were photographed and excised. In: Payne-James J, Byard R, Corey T, Henderson C, editors. 2012;126(3):441446. This is the proximal ulna with the, 2. The abovementioned typical hole-and-a-tear is a puncture wound (the round hole) produced by the canine tooth of either the maxilla or mandible on one side, which serves as an anchorage point, followed by shaking of the head creating tears enhanced by the cadavers body weight. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. You can learn about our use of cookies by reading our Privacy Policy. Fractures are usually caused by traumas like falls, car accidents or sports injuries. . A dog attempts to disable the victim by hitting at the limbs; once the subject has been down, the animal usually bites the throat, neck, or cranium, and if the attack continues, death will finally result from asphyxiation, exsanguination, or a fractured cranium and its complications.4,13,16 Unlike cats, dogs eat before the prey is dead if that is their intention. Even though there are problems involved in the preservation of evidence of crucifixion, the case of Yehohanan ben Hagkol showsthat skeletal evidence might some day give us more information about the practice. Rabinovich R, Kahana T. Animal attacks and injuries: predation. It was performed through a midline puncture below the occipital bone. In no particular order, find the What techniques were used to identify the remains? The evidence was not preserved, the appropriate experts were not asked for a timely evaluation, and finally, the prosecutors office and experts were sued for malicious prosecution, false imprisonment, and gross negligence.1, The domestic dog accounts for the majority of deaths caused by animal attacks, but a variety of animals can leave similar patterns of damage. Wounds are licked in many cases and may take on a very bright and polished aspect.12,13 This pattern is accompanied by skin abrasions and superficial linear abrasions arranged parallel corresponding to claw marks, and usually present in the contour of the bite.13,16,17 There is a paucity of literature on the individualization of dog bite marks, discriminating bite marks from claw marks and their procedures.8 Bite wounds sometimes indicate characteristic tooth marks, whereas claw scratches can indicate paw size. Synopsis. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms. Bernitz et al believes that this great distortion can be adjusted only by a pattern association analysis; in fact, the physical matching of the dogs teeth to a reproduction of the bite mark can lead to this purpose as a 3D analysis. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. Image courtesy of forensic veterinary Noemi Friedrich, BVSc, and of the Laboratory of Forensic Dentistry, Cordoba, Argentina. To identify the responsible dogs among the seven, a dental cast of each dog was prepared and superimposed on the victims wound samples collected at autopsy. The incisors are used for nibbling, producing small parallel furrows on bone. Severe damage caused by gnawing of the softer bony parts (proximal epiphyses) is frequently detected.24 Puncture marks are usually found in thin bones such as the scapula and are caused by the canines and/or carnassial teeth penetrating through the full thickness of the bone. An appropriate forensic approach should include an exhaustive analysis of the scene, the victim, and the dog. You should change the bandage daily or sooner if it becomes wet or dirty. Most of the damage was largely on soft-tissue so damage to the bone may have not . Apply an antibacterial ointment to the wound. Web Design by Adhesion. His skeleton points to moderate muscular activity, but there was no indication that he was engaged in manual labor. Intercanine and interincisal extents on each cast were registered by using a digital caliper. Hanging is one of the commonest methods of approach in case of suicidal deaths in India. Ministry of Agriculture. For keyboard, Are the fractures on this ulna perimortem, antemortem, or postmortem? Open access peer-reviewed scientific and medical journals. On January 31, 2015, Chile permitted in its Hunting Regulations, the hunt of [] wild or feral dogs, which are in packs, outside of the urban areas, at a distance of >400 m away from any village or rural housing isolated, which must be caught or hunted in the terms set forth in this Act and regulation.42 Almost 120 Chilean animal defense leagues pointed out that the capture and hunt of dogs would imply the nondiscrimination of hunted animals and would represent an incentive for the abandonment of dogs outside of urban areas. The claw pattern of the majority of dogs should be interpreted according to their anatomy of the forepaws: they are symmetrical, with longest digits 3 and 4, and absence of the digit 1. Punctures may not bleed much, but these wounds can be deep . The presence of blood at the scene and traces of subcutaneous bleeding suggested that the victim was alive when he was mauled to death. (2010, December), Mayo Clinic Staff. Cranium fragmentation may be found but decapitation is highly unusual. What techniques were used to identify the remains? Puncture wounds to the feet are a particular concern. This helps prevent infection. Attacks by pet dogs usually cause injuries to the head and neck region, whereas stray dogs often bite the hands and legs; this is probably because people have different attitudes and behaviors with pets or with stray dogs. 1) Trauma that occurred at time of death, before death or postmortem 2) Force that caused trauma; 3) Number of wounds; 4) Sequence of wounds, if multiple wounds; 5) Placement of wounds. Consider the extent of secondary fracturing with respect to where on the bone this is located. 2014;3(2):12091223. Sharp-force Trauma Technically, sharp-force trauma is blunt-force trauma applied to a very small area, but, instead of causing fracture, it usually causes incision, puncture/stabbing, and chopping/hacking injuries. 7. Skeletal bones store lipids as energy reserves in areas of See your doctor immediately if this is the case. Bitemark Evidence: A Color Atlas and Text. The most common causes for puncture wounds include: stepping on a sharp object, such as a nail. The flailing of arms, rapid movements, or attempts at self-defense by the victim can increase the intensity of the attacks (in fact, moving slowly or not moving at all can result in a reduction of this intensity).5 It has been mentioned that, in a pack situation, once an aggressive act is initiated, whether as a playful nip or a serious bite, dogs which singly taken are docile, may join and the pack instinct escalates the attack until the victim is killed or the dogs are driven off.6, We agree with Borchelt et al that the use of behavioral analysis and simulation methods to evaluate the possible factors in dog attacks can instill confidence in the observations when there is some doubt as to the cause of death in unwitnessed cases. A significant cut can cause profuse bleeding if it isnt treated promptly and properly. Children are the most frequent victims of dog bites, and head, arms, and legs are the common areas bitten by the animal. Fegan-Earl A. 5. Next, clean the area thoroughly using a small alcohol wipe. Cooperativa.cl. Taphonomic changes induced by animal activity are very common, especially in outdoor contexts where the fauna is abundant. Exsanguination due to brachial artery laceration subsequent to multiple dog bites was indicated as the main cause of death. After the bones were conserved, however, Haas noticed new evidence and suggested instead that the feet were next to one another, and one nail was driven into both heels. Try to identify the snake; color, size, shape of head, attacking method are all useful. 7. May result in severe tissue and organ damage with sudden incapacitation, profuse . These patterns allow the discrimination with bites of other species, which are not accompanied by shaking nor by the usage of canines, and with stab wounds caused by sharp weapons.2,4,8,13 Animal hair is occasionally found inside the wound.30 In cases with numerous wounds to the face, it has been recommended to take a cranial X-ray to check for bone fractures and the presence of foreign bodies.23, Canids leave typical postmortem damage patterns on the bones, characterized by rounded punctures, peg-like penetrating injuries, and shallow scratches. They exhibited overall good health.25, Death from dog attacks may be caused directly or indirectly by blunt and sharp trauma, crushing, envenomation, anaphylaxis, or sepsis.26,27 This wide variety of mechanisms can lead to problems of diagnosis if the forensic pathologist is not aware of all the details of the case. Accessed July 7, 2015. Scratches and scrapes are the most common injury suffered by poultry keepers. Puncture wounds of the foot are a relatively common problem confronting the physician. . Gerdin JA, McDonough SP. Wounds caused by dog bites. Within this rather wealthy 1st century AD Jewish tomb, Tzaferis came across the remains of a man who seemed to have been crucified. For forensic anthropology. Kalinkat G. Bringing animal personality research into the food web arena. But Seneca, the Roman philosopher, wrote in 40AD that the process of crucifying someone varied greatly: I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in different ways: some have their victims with their head down to the ground, some impale their private parts, others stretch out their arms.. Vet J. Short tandem repeat DNA finally exculpated the animal because the blood on its coat did not belong to the victim.31 Even though the literature recommends the euthanasia of the animal, this procedure is justified only if brain samples are taken. In cases of carnivore interference, the wound margin of injuries appears less regular and usually rounded, with scratch-type abrasions resulting by the action of claws. Behind them, there is a diastema followed by a small first premolar. Oxford: Academic Press. Knives have a handle, and at the end of that handle is what is called the hilt. The authors mentioned that it is fundamental that appropriate standards must be followed from the beginning, and a computer-generated 3D analysis does not lead to a higher degree of positiveness in determined cases. Metric records of all canine jaws and descriptions of dental patterns were recorded and compared with the wound samples; seven dogs were convincingly suspected to be responsible for the mauling. A pack of five dogs (four of them mixed breeds of German Shepherd and a Labrador mix) was known to demonstrate aggressive behavior and to have lived in the neighborhood. Factors that prompt the person to 1) stop breathing and 2) the heart to stop beating. Several features of This fracture is called a: ring fracture. When the animal begins to shake its head, the skin and muscle of the bite victim can be seriously torn. Canidae (dogs and relatives) belongs to the infraorder Canoidea within the Caniformia superfamily. Bone fractures are classified by their pattern, cause and where they happen in your body. Bite marks must be discriminated from other traumas, and the familiarity of the investigator with different patterns of animal behavior can be of great importance in the correct assessment of the offending specie. Thus, hanging was found out to be second most . Clean the wound. UK VAT Group: GB 365 4626 36. What caused the rapid decompositions of the bodies? First, stop any bleeding by covering the cut and applying gentle pressure. In: Dorion RBJ, editor. The parallel cutaneous lacerations on the margins of damaged skin and the presence of feces in the vicinity of the deceaseds head are distinctive of rodent activity. Research and Reports in Forensic Medical Science, http://www.cooperativa.cl/noticias/pais/policial/ataques-de-perros/fiscalia-investiga-muerte-de-hombre-tras-ataque-de-perro-pitbull-en-pitrufquen/2011-04-20/163101.html, http://acuerdos.cl/debates/ley-de-caza-de-perros-asilvestrados-problema-ecologico-o-matanza-injustificada/, http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2002-6016, Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. Odontological analysis of bite marks may provide conclusive evidence in identifying a particular animal.3,31 While in the presence of multiple animal bites, it is difficult to apply a bite mark protocol that would record every wound individually, take impressions, and remove all of the affected tissue,1 the guidelines provided by the American Board of Forensic Odontology (http://www.abfo.org) for human bite mark analysis may be useful in the implementation of the photographic protocol and in the improvement of the quality of the expertise, resulting in more strong dog identification.16 Souviron recommends taking black-and-white, color, or alternate light photographs and video documentation. Use tweezers that have been cleaned with alcohol to remove debris on the surface of the cut. Cuts or puncture wounds that are minor may be treated at home. 2013;50(6):9941006. J Forensic Sci. Dogs, cats, and kin: a molecular species-level phylogeny of carnivora. Domesticated animals, particularly dogs, have provided companionship, labor, recreation, and entertainment for humans.1 However, as the result of the most diverse causes, this interaction has not been free of conflicts. 1997; 89(12):5764. 1. There are a few ways that you can do this. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License. Without a nail in place, it becomes more difficult to tell crucifixion from animal scavengers puncture marks. Treatment for most puncture wounds involves cleaning, irrigation, sterilizing, medication, and bandaging. The intended goal of striking this area with a knife is to sever the spinal cord/brain stem. Crucifixion seems to have originated in Persia, but the Romans created the practice as we think of it today, employing either a crux immissa(similar to the Christian cross) or a crux commissa (a T-shaped cross) made up of an upright postand a crossbar. Marks made on skin (from teeth) during punching are termed 'reverse bitmarks'. He also saw fractures to the legs made around the time of death that he interpreted as evidence ofcrurifragium as well as a small scratch near the wrist that was suggestive of a nail being driven through the hand.